![Pali Glossary of grammatical terms Pali Glossary of grammatical terms](https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyz1O-mpIMjRHdYJiZITCyaa22nfqPigfa8wWzGngSZfZhVguJ1sxEyNiZBS4GILhLEkKsEx_uUc6s6xuYqhHg0ZFInUvgmhXiISq_eq08idFx_OwOMXukz_LofBlZ_JJYN2twC2-gfJA/s1600/glossary.gif)
How to use this glossary: Click on the term itself (i.e. the title) for related posts. Or follow the 'Reference' links for more offsite information.
For a list of traditional Pali & Sanskrit technical grammatical terms see the final section.
Ablative case
- From.
- In philosophical statements: from which cause? for what reason? why?
- Abl of some pronouns why? therefore.
- Isolated, separated, secluded from.
- Fear, danger from.
- Cleansed from.
- Freed from.
- To hide, conceal from
- Direction or Distance from in either space or time. This is always with -to, -ito from here, from now:
- Abstinence from, revulsion from.
- Recovered from
- Limit up to, within which
- With reference to
- In comparison or distinction, when ‘more’ is meant - whence more? (Idiomatically:how could it be more?), more than this.
- Abl is very frequently used instead of Instrumental, Accusative, Genitive, Locative:
Absolutives, gerunds, indeclinable participle
- 'having done x, he did y'
- by-him hitting I => He hits me
Accusative case
- Grammatical objects.(direct & occasionally indirect)
- Goal of motion and also change in stance, body position
- Attributive of another accusative
- Objects of a verb of speech
- .Space traversed
- Accusative of state, usually translated as ‘with reference to’
- Acc Sg neut is often adverbial
- Objects of a Causative Verb
- Following abverbs indicating proximity, to near, in the presence of
- Ordinals in the Acc denote "number of times"
Action nouns
belief, inspection, reach, arrivalIn Pali, the term refers to a derivation, marked by specific derivational infixes (eg. -ana). [Reference] See Warder pg138.
Active voice, active sentence
Ted hit the ballContrasts with passive voice. [Reference]
Adverbial
- place (in the garden),
- time (in May),
- or manner (in a strange way).
Adjective
old, wise, red, attractive, friendly.They denote qualities and are traditionally defined as words or phrases that modify or describe a substantive noun. They describe, add information or limit the noun.
In Pali, they must agree with the noun qualified - in number, gender and case.
See also comparatives. [Reference]
Affix
- derivational, (creating a new base and changing the word category) or
- inflectional (modifying the grammatical function).
- prefix, attaches to the front of the base word
- infix, comes after the root /base but before further suffixes
- suffix, attaches to the end of the base word
Agent, logical subject
Agent nouns
teacher, assessor, leader etc.They sometimes take an object related to that action ('an asker of questions'). In Pali, they are marked by specific derivational infixes (eg. -ar) and any object is placed either in the Accusative or in the Genitive case. [Reference] See Warder pg209
Agreement, Concord
Antecedent
[ Reference]
Anusvāra
Aorist
Appositional attribute
John, the butcher...[Reference]
Articles
Aspect
Assimilation
k+y | → | kk | g+y | → | gg | n+y | → | ññ | ||
kh+y | → | kkh | gh+y | → | ggh | m+y | → | mm | ||
c+y | → | cc | j+y | → | jj | l+y | → | ll | ||
ch+y | → | cch | jh+y | → | jjh | v+y | → | bb | ||
t+y | → | cc | d+y | → | jj or dd | s+y | → | ss | ||
th+y | → | cch | dh+y | → | jjh or ddh | h+y | → | yh | ||
p+y | → | pp | b+y | → | bb | r+y | → | yr | ||
ph+y | → | pph | bh+y | → | bbh | r+iy | → | yir |
-d+n | → | -nn |
-r+n | → | -iṇṇ or -t |
-g+n | → | -gg |
-j+n | → | -gg |
-p+n | → | -pp |
k+t | → | tt | g+t | → | gg | n+t | → | t | ||
kh+t | → | tth | gh+t | → | ggh | m+t | → | nt or t | ||
c+t | → | tt | j+t | → | tt or tth | l+t | → | tt | ||
ch+t | → | tth | jh+t | → | tth | y+t | → | tt | ||
t+t | → | tth | d+t | → | dd or tt | v+t | → | tt | ||
th+t | → | tth | dh+t | → | ddh or tth | s+t | → | tth | ||
p+t | → | tt | b+t | → | dd | h+t | → | tt | ||
ph+t | → | tth | bh+t | → | ddh | r+t | → | tth |
-p+ss | → | -cch |
-t+ss | → | -cch |
-d+ss | → | -cch |
-bh+ss | → | -cch |
-s+ss | → | -cch / -kkh |
-c+ss | → | -kkh |
-j+ss | → | -kkh |
-k+ss | → | -kkh |
-r+ss | → | -ss |
Augment
- obligatory for conditional verbs and
- variably applied to the past (aorist) tense verbs.
Auxiliary verbs
- the primary auxiliary verbs are: 'to be', 'to do', and 'to have';
- the modal auxiliaries are: 'can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.'
- I have finished my lunch. (the auxiliary 'have' expresses the perfective aspect.)
- I will finish my lunch. (the auxiliary 'will' expresses future time.)
- I may finish my lunch. (the auxiliary 'may' expresses optative mood.)
- My lunch is finished. (the auxiliary 'is' = 'to be' expresses passive voice.)
Avyayībhāva, adverbial compounds
Over-head, under-ground, against the stream, beyond the limit.
upa+nagaraṃ, = near the town.They are used adverbially (indicating where or how the action is being done) and are themselves indeclinable, though usually based on the neuter Nominative/Accusative singular endings. See: Compounded words. [Reference]
Base
Bahubbīhi, possessive compounds
- the red-nosed man
Case
English grammar equivalent
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Pāli case
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Generally Used to denotes
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Common English prepositional substitute
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Subject
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The subject of a verb and its attributes
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Forms of address
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Direct object
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Done to (a place or object)
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Possessive
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union, ‘whose?’, owner or possessor of a thing;
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x‘s, of/by, to have
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Indirect object / Prepositional object
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Beneficiary. To whom or for whom an action is done
or to whom something is given.
Purpose of action
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To, for
In order to
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Prepositional object
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Separation. cause or direction; from whom, what,
where or when an action proceeds
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From, out of,
as, after
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Prepositional object
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The instrument by or through which the action is
achieved.
The agent in passive voice
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By, with, through, due to, because of
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Prepositional object
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The place (in time or space) where the action takes
place
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At, in, on, among, regarding=
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For more see Syntax of the Cases [Reference]
Causative verb, Causatives
- 'A' makes 'B' do something to 'C'.
- 'A' makes 'B' + 'B' does something to 'C'.
- 'A', 'B' something 'C'
Clauses
- main [or independent], which can stand alone,
- subordinate [or dependent], that need a main clause to make sense,
- relative [or adjective], a type of subordinate clause that begins with a relative term, &
- noun, which although a clause, functions as a noun in the larger sentence.
Co-ordinate clauses
Comparative & Superlative adjectives.
- to compare one noun to another, and express a sense of ‘more than’ or ‘better than’.
- to compare a noun against several nouns or a group, meaning ‘the best of’ or ‘the most’.
positive:
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comparative:
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superlative:
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Adjectives
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white
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whiter
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whitest
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tall
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taller
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tallest
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clever
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cleverer
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cleverest
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joyful
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more joyful
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most joyful
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Adverbs
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fast
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faster
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fastest
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far
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further
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furthest
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joyfully
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more joyfully
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most joyfully
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Complements
- You can keep... (the change)
- transitive verbs requires a direct object:
- he consumed (the cake)
- bi-transitive verbs require both a direct object and an indirect object,
- he gave (the boy) (a cake)
- linking verbs (copulas) require a subject complement
- he seemed (hungry), the ball is (blue)
- and some verbs require both a direct object and an object complement,
- I think (you) are (hungry)
- renaming it (She is the boss)
- or describing it (He is upset)
Compounded words, Compounds
- Syntactical (from western scholarship): just a sequence of words which often appear together and over time have become conjoined so have usually retained their inflectional endings,
- Kammadhāraya: Descriptive Determinate or Adjectival Compounds,
- Digu: Numerical Determinate Compounds,
- Dvanda: Copulative, Co-ordinative or Aggregative Compounds,
- Tappurisa: Dependent Determinate Compounds,
- Upasagganipātapubbaka: Prepositional Compounds,
- Bahubbīhi: Possessive, Exocentric, Relative or Attributive Compounds,
- Avyayībhāva: Adverbial Compounds
Concord
Conditional Clause
- if X then Y.
This should be distinguished from the conditional verbal mood. A conditional mood verb maybe used as the condition but it is not a defining feature.
For instance, if the condition is:
- hypothetical: both verbs are in Optative: 'if you ask, he may accept'
- certain (or a truth): both verbs are in Present indicative: 'if a virtuous man approaches an assembly, he approaches without shame'
Conditional verb mood/tense
Conjugation
However, both Sanskrit and Pali grammarians have used the term to specifically refer to ten different methods by which (regular) verbs adapt their roots to form present stems. These are usually referred to by number ie. first conjugation etc., running either 1 through 10 or 1 through 7 when the 1st classes is subdivided into 4.
Root conjugation
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Operation
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Example
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First
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Strengthen root vowel
e→ay, o→av
+ a,
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√bhū → bho → bhav+a
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Second
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Nasal insertion ñ
+ a
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√bhuj → bhuñj+a
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Third
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Addition of -ya*
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√man + ya → mañña
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Fourth
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Addition of -ṇo
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unused
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Fifth
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Addition of - ṇā
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√ñā + nā → jānā
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Sixth
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Addition of -o
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√kar + o → karo
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Seventh
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Strengthen root vowel
+ e or aya
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√kam → kām → kām+e
√dis → des → des+aya
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* –ya often assimilates to produce a consonant cluster.
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Usually, in order to translate, there is little need to be able to distinguish one class of verb from another. However, if required, it can be determined from the present tense 3rd person singular form of the verb, (the form given in most Pali dictionaries).
For most practical purposes the seven classes can be reduced to five groups:
- 1st, 2nd and 3rd conjugations: ending -ati.
- 4th conjugation: ending -uṇāti or -oti.
- 5th conjugation: ending -āti.
- 6th conjugation: ending -oti
- 7th conjugation: ending -eti or -ayati
Conjunct consonants & Consonant clusters
Consonant clusters are simply adjacent consonants with no intervening vowel. When Pali is written in romanised script the consonant clusters are explicit ie. not formed into conjuncts (kkh, cch, dda, ss, ndh, nd etc.). Note: the aspirated letters (kh, gh, ch, jh etc.) themselves are not regarded as conjunct consonants since they represent a single phoneme or sound.
Conjunctive, Conjunction
- Coordinating conjunctions, used to join either words, phrases, or clauses. (eg. and, or, for, but, yet)
- words: bat and ball
- phrases: out of the frying pan and into the fire
- main clauses: She played and he sang
- Correlative conjunction, used in pairs to join alternatives. (eg. either/or, whether, when/then, both/and)
- Both girls and boys
- Either this or that
- Subordinating conjunctions, used to join subordinate clauses to main clauses. (eg. although, because, if, since, unless, until, while)
- Stay inside until the rain stops
Copula, copulative, copular verb [linking verb]
Roses are redBut, in English, they can also be verbs of perception such as 'look, sound, or taste', that do not describe any direct action taken by the subject
He felt sick.In Pali, the copular verbs for 'to be' (asti/hoti) are often omitted resulting in a nominal/equational sentence. [Reference]
Co-relative, Correlative
- correlative conjunctions;
- either...or
- not only...but (also)
- both...and
- whether...or
- just as...so
- as much...as
- no sooner...than
- rather...than
- a relative word that represents or is paired with another relative term.
- The man, who walked slowly, he was smiling
Dative case
- purpose 'for'; often with Genitive: for one's..
- dative of advantage: Person, for whom something is done or advantageous
- With verbs expressing praise or blame, anger, believing, assent, envy, pleasure, injury, benefit, approval, forgiveness, hatred, concealing, or carrying.
- piya (adj) -dear (to whom Dat)
- alaṃ vo = enough for you
- abhabba = unable to do something (Dat).
- with adv. of time = time for...
- used with verbs "to be" meaning 'to have,
- with maññati implying contempt
- the target of motion is sometimes in Dat
- often used instead of Accusative and Locative.
Declension
Denominatives, Denominal verbs
Desideratives
Diacritics, Diacritic mark
Digu: Numerical Determinate Compounds,
- samāhāra digu: collectives; (in neuter sing ending -ṃ)
- tilokaṃ, = the three worlds
- asamāhāra digu: when the compound does not express a collective, but the objects are individual instances, (generally in the plural)
- tibhavā, = the three states of existence
Direct object
Disjunctive
The digital pali reader (DPR)
- Displaying Pali Canonical texts - the Vinaya, all five Nikaya's, the Abhidhamma, and more.
- When reading, click on a word to bring up a n English dictionary definition ( 5 dictionaries).
- Extensive searching facilities.
- Plus lots of other features like: bookmarks, history, permalinks, Script Conversion, Conjugation Charts, and Pali Vocab Quiz.
Dvanda: Copulative, Co-ordinative or Aggregative Compounds,
Technically, Dvandas can be divided into two kinds:
- when in a plural and takes the gender and declension of its last member.
- samaṇabrāhmanā = samanas and brahmins
- candimasuriyā, the sun and the moon. (often the member of import is placed last)
- The compound takes the form of a neuter singular and, whatever the number of its members, becomes a collective.
- chavimaṃsalohitaṃ = skin, flesh and blood
Enclitic (clitic)
- can't, wouldn't, isn't
Equational, Nominal sentence
- 'A' (is) 'B'.
Euphony
Fifth conjugation
Finite verb vs Non-finite
- are usually the main verbs in independent clauses; whereas non-finite verbs occur in subordinate clauses.
- require a subject; non-finite verbs frequently have implied (same as main clause) or indefinite subjects.
- almost always carry tense and voice (though this is not, strictly, part of their definition).
First conjugation
Fourth conjugation
Future passive participle, gerundive
- participle of necessity,
- the potential participle &
- the gerundive due to its similarity with Latin (not to be confused with the gerund)
- ‘this must be done,’ ‘this should be done,’ ‘this ought to be done,’ also ‘this can/could be done ‘.
Genitive absolute
While the men are waging war, the women are at home by themselves.In Pali, the absolute clause looses its normal genitive case meaning and often takes on the sense of:
- ‘when’, ‘while’, ‘after’, ‘because’
- or ‘although…’, ‘despite…’, ‘even though…’, or to ‘disregard’ another’s wishes.
Genitive case
- Possessor, 's, of
- occasionally, passive voice agent: Noun (Gen) + past participle as finite verb:
- Gen absolute: noun or pronoun (Gen) + participle (Gen)
- Partitive Gen, a fraction or part + whole, noun (Gen) equiv to 'among'
- used with words expressing, difference, equality, inequality
- used with words meaning dear, honour, veneration or the reverse,
- used with words of skill, proficiency,
- used with words indicating locality, time, distance
- used with words of remembering or thinking of, or feeling
- often used instead of Accusative, Ablative, Instrumental, Locative. and It is used adverbially too.
Gerund
Gerundive
Grammar
- syntax,
- morphology (inflection, Sandhi etc),
- phonology and
- semantics.
Grammatical category
- tense: a verb time frame, as present and past,
- number: singular, plural,
- gender: masculine, feminine and neuter,
- verbal mood: indicative, interrogative, imperative, conditional, optative
- voice: active, passive, (reflexive/middle)
- declension case.
Historical Present
Imperative mood
Imperfective aspect vs the Imperfect tense
An imperfect verb is a specific verb form which combines past tense and imperfective aspect. See Aspect and Tense.
Indeclinable
Indeclinable participle, indeclinable past participles
Indicative mood
Indirect object
Infinite verb/clause
Infinitive verb
to go, to leaveThey are a non-finite verb form (act like Verbal Adjectives) and thus, may take objects and other complements and modifiers to form a verb phrase, before being used as a noun, adjective or adverbial in the larger sentence.
In Pali, they are indeclinable and marked by specific derivational suffixes (eg. -tuṃ) [Reference] [Reference]
Infix
Inflection
Instrumental case
- Means by, or with which something is achieved
- Accompanied by
- Endowed with
- Filled:with
- Cause in non-philosophical sense:
- Equality: equal in
- Price:
- Way: by this
- Direction,orientation:from
- Manner: in this way
- Motive: through
- Time: at the end of which
- Age at which.
- Measure
- Classification: of birth, clan, family, kind
- attho (desire) takes an Instrumental object (that desired) and a Dative for person desiring,
- often used adverbially.
Intensives
Interrogative mood
Kammadhāraya: Descriptive Determinate or Adjectival Compounds,
- adjective +substantive (noun)
- mahāpuriso = a great man.
- adjective (or adverb) + adjective (or participle) - often the subject is implied
- andhabadhiro = (he is) blind and deaf.
- substantive + adjective
- naraseṭṭho = the oldest man.
- substantive + substantive (with an implied relationship but not of an oblique case)
- aniccasaññā = anicca iti saññā, the idea, (which is) Impermanence.
- buddhādicco = ādicco viya buddho, the sun-like-Buddha.
- guṇadhanaṃ = guno eva dhanaṃ, wealth of virtues.
Linking verbs
Locative case
- The place where.
- The time when.
- Situation in which.
- In plural, amongst
- with adv. Proximity
- cause, reason, or motive
- Locative Absolutes. noun or pronoun (Loc) + participle (Loc)
- used with words indicating happy, contented, eager,
- used with words signifying respect, love, delight, taking, seizing, striking, kissing,
- Frequently used instead of Genitive, and Adverbially too.
Locative absolute
After Sariputta departed, the Brahman diedIn Pali, the absolute clause looses its normal locative case meaning and often takes on the sense of:
- ‘when’, ‘while’, ‘after’, ‘because’ and ‘although’...
- or ‘although…’, ‘despite…’, ‘even though…’, or to ‘disregard’ another’s wishes.
Logical Subject
Main clause
Metathesis
- √sah + ya = sahya
Middle conjugation, Middle voice
Sometimes Middle conjugation is conflated with Passive conjugation.
Modal verbs
must, shall, will, should, would, can, could, may, and might.Often used in the creation of verbal mood.
Law of Mora
Morphology & morphemes
From the point of view of their function, morphemes may be divided into three classes:
-
derivational, changes the word class and creates a separate word (teach+er, teacher)
- inflectional, - alters the grammatical function, to indicate properties such as plurality (-s, -ed etc)
- and roots - the basic meaning of the word.
A Root with deprivational morphemes only is sometimes referred to as a 'stem'. See also bases & verb stems.
In the study of Pali, morphology can generally be divide into:
- the morphology of nouns ie. declension, compounds etc, &
- the morphology of verbs ie. conjugation classes, tense inflections, secondary derivatives etc
Moods, grammatical mood/mode
Niggahīta
For more see: Ariyajoti's guide to Anusvāra
Nominal (equational) sentences/clauses
Nominative case
- Grammatical Subject.
- Attribute of Subject
- Quotation: ’ti phrases'.
Non-finite verbs,
In Pali, non-finite verbs are:
- Infinitives,
- Absolutives,
- and Participles.
The term non-finite verb is often conflated with Verbal Adjective, in that they often act adjectivally. However, the term verbal adjective and verbal noun merely indicate words that are based on a verb stem but functions as a nouns/adjectives.
As verbal adjectives they may take objects and other complements and modifiers to form a verb phrase, before being used as a noun, adjective or adverbial in the larger sentence.
Noun
Noun case
Noun phrase
Noun stem
Object, grammatical object
- Direct object. the entity that is acted upon by the verb. Transitive verbs require a direct object, intransitive verbs do not.
- Indirect object, the entity indirectly affected by the verb, usually a person or animal who receives a direct object.
- Prepositional object, though not strictly an object of a verb, refers to the noun or phrase following a preposition.
Objective genitive
Oblique Cases
Optative mood
Pali primer
Paradigm tables, linguistic paradigms
Parts of speech (word class)
- Noun: generally, the name of a person, place thing, or idea.
- Verb: a word describing an action or state of being.
- Adjective: a word which describes, qualifies or modifies a noun or pronoun.
- Adverb: a word which gives adds substance to a verb, adjective, clause or other adverb, often by expressing the time, place, intensity or manner of doing something.
- Pronoun: a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase, eg. he, she, it.
- Preposition: placed before other words in composition, used to express spatial or temporal relations eg. in, on, under, towards, before etc.
- Conjunctions: used to connect words, phrases, or clauses , such as ‘and’, ‘but’, or ‘or’.
- Interjection: a small but diverse category collecting lone utterances such as: 'damn!, hey, bye, okay' etc.
- Articles: used with a noun to signal either definite (the) or indefinite (a,an). This category has no equivalent in Pali.
- Determiners: expresses a reference to a noun or noun phrase. (it, this).
- Participles: sharing features of both verbs and adjectives.
- नाम nāma – noun (including adjectives); inflected for case,
- आख्यात ākhyāta – verb; inflected for tense, person and number,
- उपसर्ग upasarga – pre-verb or prefix,
- निपात nipāta - invariant (indeclinable) words.
Participles
The terms present and past being with respect to the action of the main verb ie. running alongside or happening before that of the main verb. And they can also convey voice:
Unlike English, Pali has separate inflections to create:
- present (active) participles
- present (passive) participles
- past (active) participles
- past (passive) participles
But similar to English they often function in either passive or active sentences. And, being noun-like, they are declined like adjectives to agree with their subject in gender, case, and number.
Participial phrases
- removing his robe, the monk washed;
- I saw the monk begging for alms
Partitive genitive
- half of the pie
Passive conjugation, Passive Indicative [Middle conjugation]
- passive particles,
- or more rarely, a secondary verb derivation termed passive indicative.
Passive sentences, Passive voice
- subject, who or what the sentence is about, - technically, the noun which is in agreement with the verb in number and person,
- predicate, what happens to the subject, expressed by a verb which might require a direct object, the entity acted upon.
- Agent – The entity (noun) that carries out the action of the verb,
- Patient/Target/Theme – The entity that directly undergoes the action of the verb - What is acted upon.
(active)
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(passive)
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The vet
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shot
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the horse
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The horse
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was shot
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by the vet
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agent
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target
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target
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agent
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subject
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object
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subject
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intransitive
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In Pali, the passive voice can be achieved by use of:
- passive particles (past and sometimes also present),
- or more rarely, a secondary verb derivation termed passive indicative.
Past participles
try + ed => triedPast participles formed from irregular verbs may have endings like -en, -t, -ed, and -n.
ride + en => riddenPast participle is often associated with the perfective verb aspect, which can apply to any time period. So the label 'past' rather than referring to tense/time period, implies an event that occurred before the action of the main verb of the sentence.
They are also used in passive voice constructions.
Patient [Target]
Perfect tense
Plu-Perfect, Past-perfect
It is in fact a combination of past tense (time period) with the the perfective aspect.
The Perfective aspect
Periphrastic
He did goRather than creating an independent inflection to convey the grammatical meaning, a combination of verbs are used instead. In Pali it is generally used to create verb aspect. See also Auxiliary verbs.
He will go
[Reference]
Personal endings
Following Sanskrit grammar these can be of two types:
- Primary, applied to present indicative & future tenses,
- Secondary, applied to conditional, optative, aorist tenses.
Phrase
- noun phrase
-
verb phrase
- adverbial phrase
- Prepositional phrase
- adjectival phrase
Phonetics & Phonemes
A phoneme is a distinct unit of sound within a word. In a phonetic language such as Pali, the pronunciation of each sound (phonemes) is highly correlated to the written letters (graphemes). And Sandhi is the study of phonetic changes.
[Reference]
Prepositions
in, on, to, toward, along, by, withIn English, they take a noun phrase as object to form a prepositional phrase. In Pali, explicit prepositions play a less significant role because their functions are mainly expressed by noun case declensions.
Present participles
Present-perfect
we have talked beforeor one begun in the past and continued to the present time
he has grown impatientIn English, this tense is formed by an auxiliary, 'have/has' (present) + the past participle (perfect). See tense.
Preterite
Principle parts of verbs
Principle Part
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e.g.
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---|---|
infinitive | to sing |
simple past | sang |
past participle | sung |
present participle | singing |
Thus they can be seen as the result of addition of derivational affixes to a Verb root / stem.
Pronominal adjective
- Their coat, his trousers, that hat, this desk
Pronouns, types of
- he, she, you, me, I, we, us, this, them, that.
- Personal pronouns (e.g., he, she, you, me, they)
- Demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this, these)
- Interrogative pronouns (e.g., which, who ?)
- Indefinite pronouns (e.g., none, several, anyone)
- Possessive pronouns (e.g., his, your)
- Relative pronouns (e.g., who, which, where is)
- Reflexive pronouns (e.g., itself, himself)
Pali text society, (PTS) -number scheme
Radical
Reduplication
Reflexive voice (middle voice)
- Active voice: the subject=agent and causes the action. (I drive the car)
- Passive voice: the subject=patient/target and undergoes the consequences of the action. (The car was driven).
- Middle/Reflexive voice: the subject is both agent and target, the focus of and the only thing involved in the action. (I drove)
Relative clauses
- This is the house which Jack built.
Repetition of words
- tesu tesu ~ various
- taṃ taṃ ~ this and this.
- yaṃ yaṃ ~ whatever
- so so, ~ every one.
- so diṭṭhadiṭṭhamanusse jīvitakkhayaṃ pāpeti, he kills all whom he sees;
- gatagataṭṭhāne, in every place,
- yena kena, by whatever...;
Root
They are marked by the √ symbol as in the Pāli verb root √gam = 'to go'. Each word has a single root morpheme.
Sandhi
All of which result in sound changes, most due to the fusion of sounds across morpheme or word boundaries. Thus Sandhi (generally euphony & assimilation) can occur in two areas:
- within a word (internal), as with the addition of affixes, (stem+suffix)
- or between words (external) when words are compounded (word+word)
Second conjugation
[Reference]
Secondary Derivation/Conjugation [derivative verbs]
Thus, counter-intuitively, a secondary inflection usually precedes the primary inflection!
Secondary verbs can be formed either from verb stems/roots (so-called deverbals) or from nouns (denominal verbs or denominatives) thus changing a noun into a verb.
Deverbal formations include:
- Passives - "something was done - by me",
- Causative - "I had someone do something",
- Iterative/inceptive - "I did something repeatedly" / "I began to do something" ,
- Desideratives - "I want to do something".
Sometimes the conditional inflection is counted as a secondary derivation of the future tense.
Semantics
The missionary is ready for eating",are ambiguous in meaning because the same sequence of words (syntax) can take one of two deeper semantic meanings. See also Semantic/thematic roles.
"Visiting relatives can be tiresome.
Seventh conjugation
[Reference]
Sixth conjugation
[Reference]
Special base / tense
[Reference]
Stem
Where as a 'root' is a form which can not be further broken down into smaller meaningful parts- either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. See Verb stem .
[Reference]
Strengthening (of verb roots), guṇation
[Reference] [Reference] [Reference]
Subject and objects (grammatical)
Objects are nouns (or noun phrases) representing the thing(s) affected by a verb, either directly or indirectly as in one who receive something or benefit in some way. Objects are verb complements, in that they complete the verb to form the predicate of a simple sentence. Some verbs don't require an object to complete their meaning and these verbs are termed intransitive .
[Reference] [Reference]
Subject and predicate
Subject, subject of the verb, grammatical subject
[Reference]
Subjective genitive vs objective genitive
The dog's hunting,This phrase can either refer to:
- 'the hunting done by the dog', where the dog is the agent/subject of the action.
- or 'the hunting of the dog by others', where the dog is the object/target of the action.
Subordinate clause
[Reference] [Reference]
Substantive
Suffix
Superlative
Syntax
[Reference]
Tense system
Tense, aspect and mood
- the time when an action or event occurs, or when a state or process holds,
- aspect, expresses the extent (duration, completion, or frequency) of the action, event, state, process or situation.
I eat", "I am eating", "I have eaten", and "I have been eatingAll are in the present, indicated by the present-tense verb 'to eat'. Yet they differ in aspect, each conveying different extents of completion.
Aspect in English is conveyed by the use of auxiliary verbs: 'to be' & 'to have'.
Mood in English is conveyed by the use of modal verbs: 'will/shall, would, could should, may'
Mood:
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Indicative
|
conditional
|
optative
|
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Time:
Aspects:
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Present
|
Past
|
Future
|
||
Simple
|
go(es)
|
went
|
will go
|
would go
|
may go
|
Imperfective
(progressive/continuous)
|
am/is/are
going
|
was/were
going
|
will be
going
|
would be
going
|
may be going
|
Perfective
|
have/has
gone
|
had gone
|
will have
gone
|
would have
gone
|
may have
gone
|
Perfect-progressive/continuous
|
have/has
been going
|
had been
going
|
will have
been going
|
would have
been going |
may have
been going |
These tenses often go by the combination names, simple-present, past-perfect, future-progressive etc. But also older grammars may use a Latin/Greek language/grammar system:
Time:
Aspects:
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Present
|
Past
|
Future
|
Simple
|
Present
|
Aorist
|
Future
|
Imperfective
(progressive/continuous)
|
Imperfect
|
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Perfective
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Perfect
|
Plu-Perfect
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Future-Perfect
|
For anyone interested in Pali tense I recommend watching this video tutorial on Tense, Aspect & Mood.
[Reference] [Reference]
Tappurisa: Dependent Determinate Compounds,
- araññagato = (Acc), gone to the forest,
- buddhabhāsito = (Ins) spoken by the Buddha
- . saṅghabhattaṃ = (Dat) rice for the Saṅgha,
- gantukāmo = (+kāmo Dat), desiring to go.
- rukkhapatito = (Abl) fallen from the tree.
- rājaputto = (Gen) son of the king; the king's son, (note: 1st member is Gen therefore the possessor).
- araññavāso = (Loc) living in the forest.
Thematic roles, Semantic roles
- Agent – The entity (noun) that intentionally carries out the action of the verb
- Patient/Target/Theme – The entity that directly undergoes the action of the verb - what is acted upon.
- Instrument – The entity through which the action of the verb is carried out.
- Beneficiary - the entity for whose benefit the action occurs (e.g.. I baked Reggie a cake)
[Reference] [Reference]
Thematic verbs vs Athematic
As opposed to the thematic class of verbs which present a "thematic" vowel (-a in Pali) at the end of the verb stem.
Third conjugation
Transitive vs Intransitive verbs
- Intransitive: he arrived; he swam
- Intransitive: he came here; it arrived yesterday.
- he arrested... (the thief)
- bring (me) (the book); he told (me) (a lie)
Some verbs can be used as both transitive or intransitive depending on context:
- Intransitive: he wrote quickly,
- Transitive: he wrote (a letter)
- di-Transitive: he wrote (his mother) (a letter)
Types of objects
Velthuis
However, with the proliferation of modern unicode fonts, the use of Velthuis has largely become redundant.
[Reference]
Verbal aspect
The most fundamental distinction, is between perfective aspect and imperfective aspect.
- Simple, no aspect, - expressing facts,
- Perfective aspect indicates a bounded, finished event (I have helped him)
- Imperfective aspect views an event or process as unfolding or having a repeated nature. (I am helping him, I often help him)
Language
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Perfective Aspect
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Imperfective Aspect
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Latin
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Perfect
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Imperfect
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Greek
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Aorist
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Imperfect
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The Imperfective (ongoing) aspect can also be subdivided:
- Continuous: an ongoing state, expressed by a copula and complement
- Tom is a student
- Progressive: having limited duration; expressed by a copula and present participle
- Tom is reading
- Habitual: for repetition over the longer term
- Tom reads frequently
Aspects of the present:
- Present simple (no aspect - simple statement): "I eat"
- Present progressive (progressive, not perfect): "I am eating"
- Present perfect (not progressive, perfect): "I have eaten"
- Present perfect-progressive (progressive & perfect): "I have been eating"
Verbal mood
- indicative, - a simple statement believed to be fact
- interrogative, - a question
- imperative, - a command or request
- subjunctive, (Sanskrit) - various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, often contrary-to‐fact or hypothetical.
- conditional, - if/then conditions
- optative - a wish or hope,
- potential - probability.
[Reference] [Reference] [Reference]
Verb root
From the point of view of their functions in words, morphemes may be divided into three classes:
- derivational, changes the word class
- inflectional, - alters the grammatical function,
- and root.
Verb stems
However, in Pali grammars, the term 'Stem' as applied to verbs, is often defined slightly differently, to mean the base before a personal verb ending has been applied.
Occasionally, 'Stem' is used in the same sense as 'Base' ie. any part of a word to which an affix may be attached.
Verbal Adjective, Verbal vs Deverbal
- I have such an annoying brother.
- The man wearing a hat is my father
Thus, truly "verbal" adjectives are non-finite verb forms: participles (present and past), and sometimes to-infinitives. Which act as verbs - in that they form a verb phrase, possibly taking objects and other dependents and modifiers that are of verbs - however that verb phrase then plays the role of an attributive adjective in the larger sentence.
Technically, they are opposed to deverbal adjectives - a verb that has been converted into a noun and used as an ordinary adjective whilst no longer taking objects like a verb.
- It was a very exciting game.
Verbal nouns
- It was a lovely building.
- Their arrival has been delayed.
However, some grammarians use the term "verbal noun" to include verbal nouns, gerunds (action nouns, not absolutives), infinitives and participles.
Vocative case
Voice
The voice is said to be:
- Active: the subject= an agent which causes the action. (I drove the car)
- Passive: the subject= a patient/target which undergoes the consequences of the action. (The car was driven).
- Middle/Reflexive: the subject is both agent and target, the focus of and the only thing involved in the action. (I drove)
Vowel gradation
Vipassana Research Institute [VRI]
Warder [Also A.K.Warder or Warder's 'intro to pali']
[Reference]
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