Derivation of Participles

Participles are a kind of adjective formed from a verbal base. Like verbs, they divide into Present, Past and Future; and each group can again be divided into Active and Passive (voice). Being in the nature of adjectives most decline in the three genders - agreeing with their nouns (subjects), in number, gender and case.. So in Pali, we have seen there are roughly six kinds of participles:

• Past Passive Participles,
• Past Active Participles,
• Present Passive Participles,
• Present Active participles,
• Future Passive Participles / Gerundive
• & Indeclinable Participles,

In this post we are going to look at how the declinable participles are formed (that's the first 5 above). There's going to be a lot of tables of endings and I apologise now for this. But it's an area where the tools (DPR & Pali Lookup) often fail.

All the participles are composed of three components:

verb root/stem + participle infix + nominal (case) ending.

In the previous post we saw that there are four verbal stem systems based on:

1. Present stem;
2. Perfect stem;
3. Aorist stem;
4. Future stem.

Now you might imagine that each of the four verb stems types has a participle form - well no... Or that the participles that exist are based on one of the four stem systems - and no again - things aren't quite that straight forward...

Past passive participle (P.P.P.)

The so-called “past passive participle” (also called the “passive perfect participle” and abbreviated to p.p.p.) usually signifies completed action thus the term perfect but, in its formation, actually has no connection with either the perfect stem system of the primary conjugations or the special passive stem of the secondary conjugations. (Though some grammar guides associate it with the perfect stem system).

I think its often best just to ignore the past and the passive terms in the name as they have little bearing on how the participle is formed nor on how it is used in a sentence!

The past passive participle is widely used in Paḷi. It is a primary derivation formed directly from the root mainly. While most past participles are formed by adding -(i)ta to either the root or to the present stem; other roots ending in ī, ū, -j -g and especially –d & –r may take -na to the root which often leads to duplication of ‘n’. So if we look at -na first:

• -na may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i, (-i-na) or
• it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel;
• when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that consonant is assimilated as follows:

Assimilation -na

-d+na	→	-nna
-r+na	→	-iṇṇa / -ta
-j+na	→	-gga
-g+na	→	-gga

The suffix -ta is by far the most common. It is appended to the verb root in several ways:

• If the root ends in a vowel, -ta is added directly to it.
• If the root ends in -ā, however, that vowel is generally changed to -i or -ī. (note √dā, gives dinna)
• -ta is joined to the present stem of mainly secondary derivative verbs, by means of a connecting vowel -i- ( -i-ta), or to stems ending -aya- (-ay-ita)
• If the root ends in a consonant, -ta may either be joined to it by means of a connecting vowel -i- (-i-ta),
• Roots in -n generally drop the final n before -ta, while roots in -r generally drop the r before -ta
• or it may become assimilated to the consonant as follows:

Assimilation of t

k+t	→	tt		g+t	→	gg		n+t	→	t
kh+t	→	tth		gh+t	→	ggh		m+t	→	nt or t
c+t	→	tt		j+t	→	tt or tth		l+t	→	tt
ch+t	→	tth		jh+t	→	tth		y+t	→	tt
t+t	→	tth		d+t	→	dd or tt		v+t	→	tt
th+t	→	tth		dh+t	→	ddh or tth		s+t	→	tth
p+t	→	tt		b+t	→	dd		h+t	→	tt
ph+t	→	tth		bh+t	→	ddh		r+t	→	tth

Examples (See Duroiselle p. 450, Perniola pg. 110 or Bomhard pg. 76 for more):

√pac, to cook → pacita, cooked
√bū, to be, → bhūta, been, become
√bhī, to be afraid. → bhīta, afraid
√yā, to go undergo. → yāta, undergone
√pā, to drink, → pita, drunk
√gajj, to thunder, → gajjitta, thundered
√dam, to tame → danta, tamed
dese, to teach, → desita, taught
vedaya to feel → vedayita, felt
√rudh, to obstruct → ruddha, obstructed
√kar, to make → kata made
√lū, to cut, reap, → lūna, reaped, cut.
√sar, to remember → sata, remembered
√sad, to settle → sinna, settled
√tar, to cross → tiṇṇa, crossed

And sometimes two forms are derived from the same root:

√lag, to adhere, → lagga and lagita.
√gam, to go, → gata and gamita.
√dā, to give, → dinna and datta.
√kas, to plough, → kaṭṭha and kasita.

All forms of this participle are then declined in the 3 genders with the case endings of a/ā nouns.
So for -ta:

-ta	Masculine (like -a)		Neuter (like -a)		Feminine (like -ā)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-to	-tā	-taṃ	-tāni	-tā	-tāyo, -tā
Vocative	-ta				-te
Accusative	-taṃ	-te			-taṃ
Instrumental	-tena	-tehi	-tena	-tehi	-tāya	-tāhi
Ablative	-tā -tamhā, -tasmā; -tato		-tā -tamhā, -tasmā; -tato
Dative	-tassa -tāya	-tānaṃ	-tassa -tāya	-tānaṃ		-tānaṃ
Genitive	-tassa		-tassa
Locative	-te -tasmiṃ	-tesu	-te -tasmiṃ	-tesu	-tāya, -tāyaṃ	-tāsu

And for -na:

-na	Masculine (like -a)		Neuter (like -a)		Feminine (like -ā)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-no	-nā	-naṃ	-nāni	-nā	-nāyo, -nā
Vocative	-na				-ne
Accusative	-naṃ	-ne			-naṃ
Instrumental	-nena	-nehi	-nena	-nehi	-nāya	-nāhi
Ablative	-nā -namhā, -nasmā; -nato		-nā -namhā, -nasmā; -nato
Dative	-nassa -nāya	-nānaṃ	-nassa -nāya	-nānaṃ		-nānaṃ
Genitive	-nassa		-nassa
Locative	-ne -nasmiṃ	-nesu	-ne -nasmiṃ	-nesu	-nāya, -nāyaṃ	-nāsu

Participles are verbal adjectives and can be used in a sentence like any adjective to qualify a noun or an adverb to qualify a verb. In the Neuter these participles can be used as substantive nouns! See my other post for the syntax and uses of Pali participles.

The Perfect or Past active participle

Any intransitive past participle in Pali, as described previously, can be used in an active sense. And this is true also in English, consider:

Alcohol is drunk (passive) : I get drunk (active)
The reason was forgotten : I have forgotten the kids

In addition, there are a rare set of past participles formed by adding -vā or vī  (from the possessive -vat/-vant & -vin) to the past passive participle itself which are then specifically active in meaning. These are sometimes called the perfect participles active.

They are then declined like adjectives in -vat/-vant & -vatī/-vantī in feminine - See Duroiselle $465 & $229.

-vā	Masculine (like -at/-ant)		Neuter (like -at/-ant)		Feminine (like -atī/-antī)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-vā, -vanto	-vanto, -vantā	-vaṃ, -vanta	-vantāni, -vantā.	-vatī, -vantī.	-vatī, -vatiyo, -vantī, -vantiyo
Vocative	-vā, -va	-vanto	-va, -vaṃ
Accusative	-vaṃ, -vantaṃ.	-vante.	-vaṃ, -vantaṃ		-vatiṃ, -vantiṃ.
Instrumental	-vatā, -vantena	-vantehi -vantebhi	-vatā, -vantena.	-vantehi -vantebhi	-vatiyā, -vantiyā.	-vatīhi, -vatībhi, -vantīhi, -vantībhi.
Ablative	-vatā, -vantā, -vantasmā, -vantamhā.		-vatā, -vantā, -vantasmā, -vantamhā.
Dative	-vato, -vantassa	-vataṃ, -vantānaṃ	-vato, -vantassa.	-vataṃ, -vantānaṃ.		-vatīnaṃ, -vantīnaṃ.
Genitive
Locative	-vati, -vante, -vantasmiṃ, -vantamhi.	-vantesu	-vati, -vante, -vantasmiṃ, -vantamhi.	-vantesu	-vatiyā, -vatiyaṃ, -vantiyā, -vantiyaṃ.	-vantīsu, -vatīsu.

These participles can also be formed with the suffix -vī (from -vin), in which case the -a- before the -vī is lengthened to -ā-, thus: pacitāvī ‘having cooked’; bhuttāvī ‘having eaten’; etc.

And in -vī, they decline like adjectives in ī. See Duroiselle $205 & $231. Eg:

–vī	Masculine (like –ī/in)		Neuter (like –?)		Feminine (like -ī/in)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-vī	-vino	-vi, -viṃ	-vīni, -vī	-vinī	-viniyo
Vocative	-	-			-	-
Accusative	-viṃ, -vinaṃ	-vino			-viṃ	-viniyo
Instrumental	-vinā	-vihi, -vīhi	-vinā	-vihi, -vīhi	-viniyā	-vinīhi
Ablative	-vinā, -vismā, -vimhā		-vinā, -vito, -vismā, -vimhā
Dative	-vino	-vinaṃ, -vīnaṃ	-vino	-vinaṃ, -vīnaṃ		-vinīnaṃ
Genitive			-vino, -vissa
Locative	-vini, -vismiṃ, -vimhi	-visu, -vīsu	-vismiṃ, -vimhi	-visu, -vīsu	-viniyā, -viniyaṃ	-vinīsu

The Present participles (active)

In Pali, like English, the present participle (both active & passive) tends towards the expression of unfinished action and so are more aligned with the continuous verb aspect rather than the perfect (completed). When acting as non-finite verbs in Pali they specify actions that occur at the same time as the action of the main verb. Note that present participles are not called ‘present’ because they necessarily occur in the present tense, but rather because they occur at the same time as the action of the main verb!

Present participles, are formed from the present stem of verbs and the active participle is formed by adding the suffixes –nt/-ant . (Sometime you may see in the guides -aṃ as a suffix but this just reflects the irregular nominative masculine singular ending which appears as -aṃ or -anto)

So from the present stem:

jānā → jānānt, jānanta,
labha → labhant, labhanta,
kara → karant, karanta

Stems ending in -ṇā, -no, -uṇā, -uṇo (4th Conj.) and -nā (5th Conj.) generally take the termination -nta. For instance:

suṇā, suṇo, → suṇanta, suṇonta
kiṇā, → kiṇanta.

While:

karo → karont, karonta,

Present stems ending -e (7th Conj), also causative bases, take only the -nta suffix, and -ṃ after the base in aya. For instance:

dese → desenta, desayant, desayaṃ 

They are then declined like adjectives in -vat/-vant & -vatī/-vantī in feminine - as tabled above for -vā.- except the nominative masculine singular for -nt which is irregular, dropping the 't' and changing the 'n' to ṃ.

–ant	Masculine (like –ant)		Neuter (like –ant)		Feminine (like -ant-in)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-aṃ, -anto	-anto, -antā	-aṃ, -antaṃ	-antā -antāni	-antī	-antīyo
Vocative	-aṃ, -a
Accusative	-antaṃ	-anto, -ante	-antaṃ	-ante, -antāni	-antiṃ
Instrumental	-antena, -atā	-antehi, -antebhi	-antena, -atā	-antehi, -antebhi	-antiyā	-antīhi
Ablative	-atā -antamhā, -antasmā; -antato		-atā -antamhā, -antasmā; -antato
Dative	-ato -antāya	-antānaṃ -antaṃ	-ato -antāya	-antānaṃ -antaṃ		-antīnaṃ
Genitive	-antassa -ato		-antassa -ato
Locative	-ati -ante -antasmiṃ, -antamhā	-antesu	-ati -ante -antasmiṃ, -antamhā	-antesu	-antiyā, -antiyaṃ	-antīsu

The Present participles - reflexive

There is also a Present participle with a reflexive ending. Although this is sometimes separated out as a distinct class it has lost its reflexive meaning and is used predominantly like a Present participle in active voice. Many grammar guides lump it together with the active endings.

It is formed by the addition of –(m)āna to the present stem. Like above, -ayamāna, -ayāna is also possible on verb stems ending in -e.

gacchamāna, gacchāna
desayamāna, desayāna.

Much less frequent than the above, is the addition of -āna directly to the root.

And -(m)ana follows the declension of nouns in -a/ā - like -na above:

-(m)āna	Masculine (like -a)		Neuter (like -a)		Feminine (like -ā)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-(m)ano	-(m)anā	-(m)anaṃ	-(m)anāni	-(m)anā	-(m)anāyo -(m)anā
Vocative	-(m)ana				-(m)ane
Accusative	-(m)anaṃ	-(m)ane			-(m)anaṃ
Instrumental	-(m)anena	-(m)anehi	-(m)anena	-(m)anehi	-(m)anāya	-(m)anāhi
Ablative	-(m)anā -(m)anamhā -(m)anasmā -(m)anato		-(m)anā -(m)anamhā, -(m)anasmā -(m)anato
Dative	-(m)anassa -(m)anāya	-(m)anānaṃ	-(m)anassa -(m)anāya	-(m)anānaṃ		-(m)anānaṃ
Genitive	-(m)anassa		-(m)anassa
Locative	-(m)ane -(m)anasmiṃ	-(m)anesu	-(m)ane -(m)anasmiṃ	-(m)anesu	-(m)anāya, -(m)anāyaṃ	-(m)anāsu

The Present passive participles

The Present participle can also be formed on a passive indicative verb base by adding the suffix -māna to the passive indicative secondary verb stem and inflecting as a noun ending a/ā - like (m)āna above. .

Note the passive indicative verb base is formed by adding -īya to the root or stem; so then adding the present participle terminations above (-[i]ya-māna). Eg.

paca + īya → pacīya (passive stem/base)
paca + īya + māna → pacīyamāna = being cooked
√kar → kariyati → kariyamāna = being done
√vac → vuccati → vuccamāna = being called

You can refer to my previous post on passive stems, but to summarise, the passive verb is formed:

• When the root ends in a vowel, -ya- is added directly, the root vowel frequently undergoing change.
• When the root ends in a single consonant, -ya- is generally added directly, and the preceding consonant may be assimilated to the last consonant of the root. See assimilation of -ya.
• When the root ends in a consonant cluster or a single consonant that does not readily double (generally r or h), -ya- is added with the connecting vowel -ī-, yielding -īya-. Sometimes,
• -īya- is added to the present stem.

These are then declined as -(m)āna above.

Future participles

According to the theory of tenses laid out in the previous post it is possible to derive future participles by adding the present participle endings (-ant) to the future verb stem. However, as Warder notes (pg.104), an active future participle can be formed, but it is hardly existent. In the entire Pali Canon, he finds only one example. Collins also identifies only a few from the future stem:

 mariss + ant -> marissaṃ 

Future passive participles - Gerundives.

Having noted the lack of participles derived from the future stem as above there is what is sometime called the Future passive participle which may also be referred to as the participle of necessity, the potential participle or gerundive (not to be confused with the gerund). As its name suggests this participle forms passive constructions. According to Warder, the ‘future passive participle‘ is used in any construction requiring a future participle. Although it is called a future participle it is not formed on the future stem but by adding to the root the suffixes:

-tabba; -īya; -(y)ya; or -anīya.

The sense of the future passive participle is generally not simply future but rather imperative or optative: "this must be done", "this should be done".

Like past participles they can act as verbs (especially when the suffix -tabba or -(y)ya is used), adjectives (especially when the suffix -aniya is used), or as nouns (in neuter only). Like all participles they agree in number, gender and case with their subject.
The suffix -tabba is the most common. It is added:

• Directly to roots ending in a vowel.
• Roots ending in i, ī, change to e before -tabba
• Roots in u, ū form the Future P. P. on the present stem
• To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of a connecting vowel i.
• or added directly to roots ending in a consonant, where the initial t of tabba is assimilated in exactly the same manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect/Past Participle.

Examples:

√dā, to give, → dātabba
√ji to conquer,→ jetabba
√bhū, to be, → bhavitabba
√pucch, to ask,→ pucchitabba
√kar, to do, → kattabba,
√gam to go, → gantabba
√labh, to receive, → laddhabba

With the addition of -(i)ya, 

• the initial y becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root. See assimilation of -ya. 
• In a few cases,-ya is joined to the root by means of vowel i.
• After roots ending in -ā, i, or ī the initial y of ya is doubled and ending of the root is changed to e.

Examples:

 √gam, to go, → gamma,
√bhū, to be, → bhabba
√labh, to obtain, → labbha
√kar, to do, → kāriya, kayya, kayīra
√dā, to give, → deyya
√ji, to conquer, → jeyya

A few verbs have future passive participles in -taya, -tāya & -teyya.

Examples:

 √jṇa, to know, → ṇātaya, ṇāteyya
√drs, to see, → daṭṭhāya,
√āp, to reach, → pattāyya, patteyya

The suffix -anīya is added to the root or to the present stem. Examples:

√kar, to do, → karaṇīya
√bhū, to be, → bhavanīya,

These are all then declined in the three genders like nouns ending a/ā.

Secondary Derivation Participles

The Present passive participle outlined above is actually a type of secondary derivation; that is, the participle suffix is applied to a base that is already a modified form of verb stem - the passive verb stem.

In theory participle endings can be applied to any secondary verb, but it practice they are formed mainly on the passive (as above) or causative bases. Eg.

Root.	Causative Base.	+ Present. Part. infix.
√dhar to hold	dhāre, dhāraya. dhārāpe, dhārāpaya.	dhārenta, dhārayaṃ, dhārayanta dhārāpenta dhārāpayaṃ, dhārāpayanta.
√mar, to die	māre, māraya, mārāpe, mārāpaya,	mārenta, mārayaṃ, mārayanta mārāpenta mārāpayaṃ, mārāpayanta.
√chid, to cut	chede, chedaya. chedāpe, chedāpaya.	chedenta, chedayaṃ, chedayanta. chedāpenta, chedāpayaṃ, chedāpayanta.

Phew...
Hope you're still with me...  Next post we take a break from scary inflection tables and look at What is Grammar...